Although the Göktürks spokeOld Turkic, the Khaganate's early official texts and coins were written inSogdian.[5][13]It was the firstTurkicstate to use the nameTürkpolitically.[14]Old Turkic scriptwas invented at the first half of the 6th century.[15][16]
It collapsed in 603, after a series of conflicts and civil wars which separated the polity into theEastern Turkic KhaganateandWestern Turkic Khaganate. TheTang Empireconquered the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in 630 and the Western Turkic Khaganate in 657 in a series of military campaigns. TheSecond Turkic Khaganateemerged in 682 and lasted until 744 when it was overthrown by theUyghur Khaganate.
The origins of the Turkic Khanate trace back to 546, whenBumin Qaghanmade a preemptive strike against theUyghurandTielegroups planning a revolt against their overlords, theRouran Khanate. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, thus marrying into the royal family. However, the Rourankhagan,Yujiulü Anagui, sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?" As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" (Chinese:鍛奴;pinyin:duànnú) comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some claim that the Göktürks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,[17][18][19][20]and that "blacksmith slavery" may have indicated a form ofvassalagewithin Rouran society.[21]According toDenis Sinor, this reference indicates that the Türks specialized in metallurgy, although it is unclear if they were miners or, indeed, blacksmiths.[22][23]Whatever the case, that the Turks were "slaves" need not be taken literally, but probably represented a form of vassalage, or even unequal alliance.[24]
Panel from theTomb of Anjia, aSogdiantrader (right), who is shown welcoming a Turkic leader (left, with long hair combed in the back). 579 CE,Xi'an,China.[25][26]
A disappointed Bumin allied with theWestern Weiagainst the Rouran, their common enemy. In 552, Bumin defeated Anagui and his forces north ofHuaihuang(modernZhangjiakou,Hebei).[27]
Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy, Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the new khanate atOtukan, but died a year later. His son,Muqan Qaghan, defeated theHephthalite Empire,[28]KhitanandKyrgyz.[29]Bumin's brotherIstämi(d. 576) bore the title "Yabguof the West" and collaborated with theSassanid EmpireofIranto defeat and destroy the Hephthalites, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina clan's grip on theSilk Road.
The appearance of thePannonian Avarsin the West has been interpreted as a nomadic faction fleeing the westward expansion of the Göktürks, although the specifics are a matter of irreconcilable debate given the lack of clear sources and chronology. Rene Grousset links the Avars with the downfall of the Hephthalites rather than the Rouran,[30]while Denis Sinor argues that Rouran-Avar identification is "repeated from article to article, from book to book with no shred of evidence to support it".[31]
Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Göktürks into Europe.[32]In 576 the Göktürks crossed theKerch Straitinto theCrimea. Five years later they laid siege toChersonesus; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.[33]As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of theAmu Darya, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sasanian Empire. Much ofBactria(includingBalkh) remained a dependency of theAshinauntil the end of the century.[33]
The Göktürk's played a major role with the Byzantine Empire's relationship with the PersianSasanian Empire.[34]The first contact is believed to be 563 and relates to the incident in 558 where the slaves of the Turks (thePannonian Avars) ran away during their war with theHephthalites.[34][35]
The second contact occurred when Maniah, aSogdiandiplomat, convincedIstämi(known as Silziboulos in Greek writings[36]) of the Göktürks to send an embassy directly to the Byzantine Empire's capital Constantinople, which arrived in 568 and offered silk as a gift to emperorJustin IIand where they discussed an alliance. In 569 an embassy led byZemarchusoccurred which was well received and likely solidified their alliance for war.[34][37]
Another set of embassies occurred in 575-576 led by Valentine which were received with hostility byTurxanthosdue to alleged treachery.[35]They required the members of the Byzantine delegation at the funeral of Istämi to lacerate their faces to humiliate them.[38]The subsequent hostility shown by the new rulerTardu[38][39]would be matched in Byzantine writings.[40]With the insults reflecting a breakdown of the alliance, the likely cause is that the anger was due to the Turks not having their expectations met from their agreements and realising they were being used when they no longer aligned with the current goals of the Byzantine Empire (who correspondingly lacked trust in the Turks as partners).[34]
Göktürk petroglyphs from Mongolia (6th to 8th century).[41]
Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.
The Turkic Khanate split in two after the death of the fourth ruler,Taspar Qaghan, c. 584. He had willed the title ofkhaganto Muqan's sonApa Qaghan, but the high council appointedIshbara Qaghaninstead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long, four rivals claimed the title. They were successfully played off against each other by theSuiandTangdynasties.[citation needed]
The most serious contender was the western one, Istämi's sonTardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father's death. He now seized the title and led an army east to claim the seat of imperial power, Otukan.[citation needed]
In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied toEmperor Yang of Suifor protection. Tardu attackedChang'an, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding Emperor Yangdi end his interference in thecivil war. In retaliation, Suidiplomacysuccessfully incited a revolt of Tardu'sTielevassals, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghurs andXueyantuo.[citation needed]
The civil war left the empire divided into eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Otukan, remained in the orbit of the Sui and retained the name Göktürk. TheShibi Khan(609–619) andIllig Qaghan(620–630) attacked theCentral Plainat its weakest moment during thetransition between the Sui and Tang. Shibi Khan's surprise attack againstYanmen Commanderyduring an imperial tour of the northern frontier almost capturedEmperor Yang, but hisethnic Hanwife Princess Yicheng—who had been well treated byEmpress Xiaoduring an earlier visit—sent a warning ahead, allowing the emperor and empress time to flee to the commandery seat at present-dayDaixianinShanxi.[47]This was besieged by the Turkic army on September 11, 615,[48][49]but Sui reinforcements and a false report from Princess Yicheng to her husband about a northern attack on the khaganate caused him to lift the siege before its completion.[47]
In 626, Illig Qaghan took advantage of theXuanwu Gate Incidentand drove on to Chang'an. On September 23, 626,[48]Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalry reached the bank of theWei Rivernorth of Bian Bridge (in present-dayXianyang,Shaanxi). On September 25, 626,[48]Li Shimin (laterEmperor Taizong of Tang) and Illig Qaghan formed an alliance by sacrificing a white horse on Bian Bridge. The Tang paid compensation and promised further tribute, so Illig Qaghan ordered his iron cavalry to withdraw. This is known as the Alliance of the Wei River (渭水之盟), or the Alliance of Bian Qiao (便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟).[50]All in all, 67 incursions intoChina properwere recorded.[33]
Before mid-October 627, heavy snows on theMongolian-Manchurian grasslandcovered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.[51]According to theNew Book of Tang, in 628, Taizong mentioned that "There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm)."[52]
Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626–630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).[53]
On March 27, 630,[48]a Tang army under the command ofLi Jingdefeated the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at theBattle of Yinshan(陰山之戰 /阴山之战).[54][55][56]Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad, but on May 2, 630[57]Zhang Baoxiang's army advanced to Ishbara Shad's headquarters.Illig Qaghanwas taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.[56]The Eastern Turkic Khaganate collapsed and was incorporated into theJimi systemof Tang. Emperor Taizong said, "It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River."[55]
Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform ofAshina clan(reigned 634–639) and came to be known as theOnoq.[60]The name refers to the "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to ten leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, theDuolu(fivechurs) andNushibi(fiveirkins), whose lands were divided by the Chui River.[60]The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies. Soon, chieftainKubratof theDulo clan, whose relation ship with the Duolu is possible but not proven, seceded from the Khaganate. The Tang dynastycampaignedagainst the khaganate and its vassals, the oasis states of the Tarim Basin. TheTang campaign against Karakhojain 640 led to the retreat of the Western Turks, who were defeated during theTang campaigns against Karasahrin 644 and theTang campaign against Kuchain 648,[61][62]leading to the 657conquest of the Western Turksby the Tang generalSu Dingfang.[63]Emperor Taizong of Tangwas proclaimedKhagan of the Göktürks.
In 657, the Tang emperor could impose indirect rule along the Silk Road as far as modern-dayIran. He installed two khagans to rule the ten arrows (tribes) of Göktürks. Five arrows of Tulu (咄陆) were ruled by khagans bearing the title of Xingxiwang (興昔亡可汗) while five arrows of Nushipi (弩失畢可汗) were ruled by Jiwangjue (繼往絕可汗). Five Tulu corresponded to the area east of Lake Balkash while five arrows of Nushipi corresponded to the land east of the Aral Sea. Göktürks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 657 to 699 in the steppes was characterized by numerous rulers – weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars under the Anxi Protectorate until the rise of Turgesh.
The "Bugut" inscription ofMongolia, written shortly after 581 CE in theSogdian alphabet,[64]and commissioned by the First Turkic Khaganate to relate the history of their rulingGokturkkhans.
The Göktürks were governed byKurultai, a political and military council of khans and other high ranking leaders, such asaqsaqals.[65][page needed]
The Göktürks and other ancient Turkic peoples were mainly adherents ofTengrism, worshipping the sky godTengri. The Khaganate received missionaries from theBuddhistreligion, which was incorporated into Tengrism.
According toNevin Halıcı,ayranis a traditional Turkic drink that was consumed bynomadicTurks prior to 1000 CE.[66]According to Celalettin Koçak and Yahya Kemal Avşar (Professor of Food Engineering atMustafa Kemal University),ayranwas first developed thousands of years ago by theGöktürks, who would dilute bitteryogurtwith water in an attempt to improve its flavor.[67]
